- CHAPTER 12: TEMPERATURE AND HEAT
- CHAPTER 14: THE IDEAL GAS LAW AND
KINETIC THEORY
- CHAPTER 15: THERMODYNAMICS
- CHAPTER 18: ELECTRIC FORCES AND ELECTRIC
FIELDS
- CHAPTER 19: ELECTRIC POTENTIAL ENERGY
& ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
- CHAPTER 20: ELECTRIC
CIRCUITS
- CHAPTER 21: MAGNETISM
- CHAPTER 22: ELECTROMAGNETIC
INDUCTION
- CHAPTER 24: ELECTROMAGNETIC
WAVES
- CHAPTER 25: THE REFLECTION OF LIGHT
"MIRRORS"
- CHAPTER 26: THE REFRACTION OF LIGHT
"LENSES AND OPTICAL INSTRUMENT"
- CHAPTER 27: INTERFERENCE OF LIGHT
AND THE WAVE NATURE OF LIGHT
- CHAPTER 28:SPECIAL
RELATIVITY
- CHAPTER 29: PARTICLES AND
WAVES
- CHAPTER 30: THE NATURE OF ATOM
- Temperature: a measure of
the average kinetic energy
- Thermometer: a device used
to measure temperature
- Thermal equilibrium:
objects are in thermal equilibrium if they are at the same
temperature
- Celsius temperature scale:
scale to measure temperature that defines the freezing point of
water as 0 and the steam point as 100
- Fahrenheit temperature
scale: a scale to measure temperature that defines the
freezing point of water as 32° and the steam point as
212°
- Absolute zero: the lowest
theoretical temperature
- Kelvin temperature scale:
a scale to measure temperature based on absolute zero as the
lowest possible temperature
- Linear thermal expansion:
relative change in length in direct proportion to change in
temperature
- Linear thermal expansion
coefficient: the relative change in length per unit
change in temperature for linear thermal expansion
- Heat: energy which is
transferred due solely to a temperature difference
- Heat capacity: amount of
thermal energy required to change an objects temperature by
1°
- Specific heat: the energy
required to change the temperature of a unit mass of a substance
by 1° Celsius
- Heat of fusion: the energy
required to change a unit mass of a substance from a solid to a
liquid (or the energy given up when a unit mass changes from a
liquid to a solid)
- Heat of vaporization: the
energy required to change a unit mass of a substance from a liquid
to a gas (or the energy given up when a unit mass changes from a
gas to a liquid)
- Boyle’s law: states
that at a constant temperature the product of the pressure and
volume of an enclosed gas is a constant
- Law of Charles and
Gay-Lussac: for a gas at constant pressure, the volume
is proportional to the absolute temperature
- Ideal gas law: the product
of the pressure and the volume, for a fixed amount of gas, is
proportional to the absolute temperature
- Universal gas constant:
the proportionality constant in the ideal gas law
- Mole: the amount of a
material which contains Avogadro's number of molecules and whose
mass in grams is numerically equal to the molecular mass of the
substance
- Avogadro’s number:
the number of molecules in a mole of any substance
- Equation of state: an
equation that links the pressure, volume, and temperature of a
sample of matter
- State variables:
quantities that describe the condition or state of a system, such
as pressure, volume and temperature
- Kinetic theory of gases:
gases are made up of a large number of small spherical molecules,
in
- random motion , that have only elastic collisions with each
other and with the walls of the container
- Ideal gas: a gas made up
of a large number of small spherical molecules, in random motion ,
that have only elastic collisions
- Boltzmann constant: a
constant of proportionality between the average kinetic energy per
molecule and the absolute temperature
- Internal energy: total
kinetic energy and potential energy associated with the internal
state of the atoms composing a thermodynamic system
- Thermodynamics: area of
physics dealing with the relationship between heat and work
- Zeroth law of
thermodynamics: states that two objects, each in
thermal equilibrium with a third object, are in thermal
equilibrium with each other
- Thermodynamic system: any
collection of objects considered together
- Internal energy: total
kinetic energy and potential energy associated with the internal
state of the atoms composing a thermodynamic system
- First law of
thermodynamics: the change in internal energy of a
system is the difference between the heat taken in by the system
and the work done by the system
- Adiabatic: a process
during which no heat enters or leaves the system
- Isothermal: a process
during which there is no change in the temperature of the
system
- Isochoric: a process
during which there is no change in volume of the system
- Isobaric: a process during
which there is no change in pressure of the system
- Reversible process: a
process in which the system is near equilibrium at all times
- Carnot cycle: the most
efficient thermal cycle possible, consisting of four reversible
processes, two isothermal and two adiabatic
- Thermal efficiency: ratio
of the work done to the heat input
- Refrigerator: a system
designed use work to transfers heat from a low temperature
environment to a high environment
- Coefficient of
performance: ratio of the heat extracted from a cold
reservoir to the work done to extract the heat
- Heat pump: a system that
takes heat from a cooler outside and delivers that heat to a
warmer inside
- Second law of
thermodynamics: it is impossible for any system to
undergo a cyclic process whose sole result is the absorption of
heat from a single reservoir at a single temperature and the
performance of an equivalent amount of work
- Entropy: a measure of how
much energy or heat is unavailable for conversion into work
- Electrostatics: the study
of electrical charges at rest
- Electric charge: the
source of the electric force of attraction or repulsion
- Conductor: a material
through which charge may flow easily
- Insulator: a material
through which charge flows poorly or not at all
- Electrons: small,
negatively charged particles
- Law of conservation of
charge: states that the total amount of electric charge
in the universe remains constant
- Charging by induction:
inducing a charge without touching the receiving object with a
charged object
- Coulomb’s law: the
force of attraction or repulsion of two electric charges is
proportional to the product of the charges and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them
- Coulomb: the SI unit for
charge
- Permittivity of free
space: the quantity eo
, a constant of proportionality in Coulomb's law
- Elementary charge:
magnitude of the smallest charge found on an electron or proton,
represented by e
- Electric field: the
electric force per unit charge exerted on a small positive test
charge
- Electric flux: the number
of field lines that pass through a given surface
- Gauss’s law for
electrostatics: the net electric flux through any (real
or imaginary) closed surface is directly proportional to the net
electric charge enclosed within that surface
- Gaussian surface: a
surface used to calculate the electric field from Gauss's law
- Electric dipole: two equal
but opposite charges separated by a fixed distance
- Dipole moment: for a
dipole (a positive charge and a negative charge separated by a
small distance) a vector directed away from the negative to the
positive charge whose magnitude is the product of the charge and
the separation
- Electric potential: ratio
of the work done by an external force in moving a charge from one
point to another divided by the magnitude of the charge
- Volt: the unit of electric
potential; a joule per coulomb
- Electric potential
difference: ratio of the work done by an external force
in moving a charge from one point to another divided by the
magnitude of the charge
- Electrical conductivity: a
measure of the degree to which an applied field can produce a
current density in a material
- Van de Graaff generator:
an electrostatic generator which separates charges to produce a
large potential difference
- Electronvolt: a unit of
energy, 1.6 x 10-19 Joules
- Capacitor: a device for
storing electric charge; two conductors separated by an
insulator
- Capacitance: the charge
stored on each plate divided by the potential difference between
the plates
- Farad: a measurement of
capacitance equal to 1 coulomb per volt
- Dielectric: electrically
nonconducting material
- Dielectric constant: the
ratio of capacitance with a dielectric between the plates to the
capacitance with a vacuum between the plates
- Dielectric strength: the
maximum electric field that a material can withstand before
breaking down or losing its ability to insulate
- Battery: a source of
electrical energy consisting of one or more cells
- Electric current: the rate
at which electric charge passes through a conductor
- Direct current: electric
current in which the charge always flows in the same
direction
- Ampere: the SI unit of
measurement for current
- Electric circuit: a
complete (unbroken) conducting path for electric current
- Resistance: the ratio of
the voltage to the current
- Ohm: a unit of resistance;
a volt per ampere
- Ohm’s law: defines
the relationship among potential difference, current and
resistance
- Resistors: electric
components manufactured especially for their resistance
- Resistivity: the
resistance of a unit length of a conductor of unit cross sectional
area
- Joule’s law: gives
the rate of transfer of electrical energy to heat energy in a
resistor
- Ground potential: in an
electrical circuit, the point (or points) in the circuit that is
maintained with a zero potential difference with respect to the
Earth
- Short circuit: a circuit
failure in which the current follows an alternative conducting
path, usually parallel to the desired path, with lower
resistance
- Open circuit: a circuit in
which the path for the current is broken or interrupted
- Kirchhoff’s rules: an
application the concept of conservation of energy and conservation
of charge to electric circuits
- Terminal potential
difference: (TPD) the potential difference across
terminals of a battery
- Magnetic dipoles: a north
and south pole separated by a fixed distance
- Magnetic field: the area
over which a magnetic force exists, designated by magnetic field
lines (see field lines)
- Tesla: the SI unit for the
strength of a magnetic field
- Gauss’s law for
magnetism: the net magnetic flux through any (real or
imaginary) closed surface is zero
- Galvanometer: an
instrument used to measure electric current
- Ampère’s law:
a relationship between the magnetic field around a
current-carrying conductor and the current in the conductor
- Solenoid: a helical
winding of wire that, when carry a current, produces a uniform
magnetic field near its center
- Magnetic domains: small
regions in solids in which the ionic moments are similarly
aligned
- Faraday’s law: states
that the emf induced in a loop of wire is proportional to the rate
of change of magnetic flux through the loop
- Induced emf: the potential
difference produced in a conductor by a changing magnetic
flux
- Induced current: current
produced in a conductor by a changing magnetic flux
- Lenz’s law: states
that the direction of an induced current is such that its own
magnetic field opposes the original change in magnetic flux that
induced the current
- Generators: machines that
convert mechanical energy into electrical energy
- Electric motor: an
apparatus that turns electrical energy into mechanical energy
- Back emf: an induced
electromotive force which is directed in the opposite sense to the
applied voltage
- Transformer: a device
constructed of two adjacent multiturn coils of wire to increase or
decrease an AC voltage without loss of power
- Henry: unit of measurement
of inductance, equal to 1 volt-second per ampere
- Inductor: a circuit
component that exhibits inductance and acts to resist change in
current
- Torque: the quantity
measuring how effectively a force causes rotation
- Maxwell’s electromagnetic
equations: four equations (Gauss's law, Gauss's law for
magnetism, Faraday's law and Ampere's law, with an addition by
Maxwell) used to interpret and explain an array of electromagnetic
phenomena
- Electromagnetic waves:
electric and magnetic fields that radiate in the form of waves
from an oscillating electric charge
- Polarization: in wave
behavior, the situation where the oscillations are confined to
move in only one direction (or plane)
- Malus’s law: the
relative intensity of light that passes through two polarizers is
proportional to the square of the cosine of the angle between
their planes of polarization
- Brewster’s law: gives
the condition for maximum polarization for reflected light, that
occurs when the reflected ray and the refracted ray are at right
angles to each other
- Ray: straight line path of
light, perpendicular to the wave fronts
- Ultraviolet: the region of
the electromagnetic spectrum between visible light and x rays
- Infrared: the region of
the electromagnetic spectrum between microwaves and visible
light
- Angle of incidence: the
angle between the incoming ray and the normal (perpendicular to
the surface)
- Angle of reflection: the
angle between the outgoing ray and the normal (perpendicular to
the surface)
- Plane of incidence: a
plane perpendicular to the reflecting surface in which the normal,
the incident ray, and the reflected ray all lie
- Index of refraction: the
ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to the speed of light in
the specified medium
- Critical angle: the
incidence angle corresponding to a 90 degree angle of
refraction
- Total internal reflection:
results when the angle of incidence (of light going from a more
dense medium to a less dense medium) exceeds the critical angle
and all the incident light is reflected back into the denser
medium
- Converging lens: a lens
that refracts incident light rays toward the optical axis of the
lens
- Diverging lenses: lenses
that refract incident light away from the optical axis
- Thin lens: a lens whose
thickness is small in comparison with its focal length
- Focal length: the distance
from the center of a lens to the focal point (the point where
light striking the lens parallel to the optical axis is
focused)
- Real image: an image
formed when the light rays actually intersect at the image
- Virtual image: an image
formed at a point where the light appears to have come from
- Object distance: the
distance of the object from the lens
- Image distance: the
distance of the image from the lens
- Lateral magnification: the
ratio of the image height to the object height
- Aberrations: the failure
of a lens to give a perfect image
- Dispersion: the spreading
of light because of the wavelength dependence of the index of
refraction
- Near point: the shortest
distance from the unaided eye that produces a distinct (focused)
image on the retina
- Far point: the greatest
distance from the unaided eye that produces a distinct (focused)
image on the retina
- Astigmatism: unevenness in
the focusing of the eye
- Diopter: the unit of power
(strength) for a lens; the reciprocal of the focal length, in
meters
- Magnifying glass: a single
converging lens that, when held near the eye, gives an image whose
size on the retina is larger than that observed by the unaided
eye
- Angular magnification: the
angle subtended by the image divided by the angle subtended by the
object
- f-number: the ratio of the
focal length of the lens to the diameter of the lens
- Compound microscope: two
converging lenses (an eyepiece and an objective lens) arranged to
magnify small objects
- Objective lens: in a
compound microscope or a telescope, the lens closest to the object
being viewed
- Eyepiece: in a compound
microscope, the lens through which one looks
- Ocular: in a compound
microscope or a telescope , the lens through which one looks
- Refracting astronomical
telescope: a telescope with an objective lens with a
relatively long focal lengt
- Galilean telescope: a
telescope in which the eyepiece is a diverging lens, producing an
erect image
- Newtonian telescope: a
telescope in which the objective lens has been replaced by a
concave mirror
- Zoom lens: a lens which
can be changed quickly from a wide-angle lens (short focal length)
to a telephoto lens (long focal length), maintaining its focus
during the entire zoom range
- Varifocal lens: a lens
which must be refocused whenever you change its focal length
- Fresnel lens: a very thin
lens designed to be equivalent to a much thicker lens made the
conventional way
- Gradient index lens: a
lens in which the index of refraction decreases as a function of
distance from the optical axis
- Constructive interference:
the increase in amplitude when two waves, which are in phase, are
added
- Destructive interference:
the decrease in amplitudes when two waves, which are out of phase,
are added
- Coherence: the condition
that the phase difference between waves is constant in time and
space
- Antireflection coating: a
thin film coating placed on a lens to minimize reflection from the
surface of the lens
- Diffraction: the bending
of light as it passes through a small aperture or around a sharp
edge
- Diffraction grating: a
large number of parallel, equally spaced slits
- Polarization: in wave
behavior, the situation where the oscillations are confined to
move in only one direction (or plane)
- Malus’s law: the
relative intensity of light that passes through two polarizers is
proportional to the square of the cosine of the angle between
their planes of polarization
- Brewster’s law: gives
the condition for maximum polarization for reflected light, that
occurs when the reflected ray and the refracted ray are at right
angles to each other
- Scattering: (of light) a
process in which molecules of air have absorbed some light from a
beam and then reradiated it in other directions
- Galilean relativity:
states that the laws of mechanics are valid in all inertial
frames
- Special theory of
relativity: Developed and published in 1905 by Albert
Einstein, it deals with the measurement of physical quantities by
observers who are in uniform motion with respect to each
other
- Simultaneous: occurring at
the same time
- Time dilation: an increase
in the time interval between events measured by a moving
observer
- Time dilation: an increase
in the time interval between events measured by a moving
observer
- Proper length: the length
of an object measured by an observer at rest with respect to the
objec
- Length contraction: (also
known as Lorentz contraction) the length of an object measured by
an observer in motion relative to the object will be shorter than
its proper length
- Mass-energy relation: a
generalization of the law of conservation of energy that includes
mass, represented by the famous equation
E=mc2
- Rest mass: (proper mass)
the mass of an object when measured by an observer at rest with
respect to the object
- Blackbody: a surface or
object that is a perfect emitter of radiation and a perfect
absorber of all radiation falling on it
- Planck’s constant:
the constant of proportionality between the energy and frequency
of an electromagnetic wave
- Quantum: smallest possible
unit of energy
- Photoelectric effect: the
emission of electrons from a material as a result of light
striking its surface
- Threshold frequency: the
frequency of light below which ejection of photoelectrons will not
occur, no matter how great the intensity of the incident
light
- Photon: a quantized unit
of electromagnetic radiation
- Work function: the minimum
amount of energy that must be acquired by an electron before it
can escape from the surface of a material
- Electronvolt: a unit of
energy, 1.6 x 10-19
Joules
- Compton wavelength:
represented by the quantity h/mc with a value of
2.426 x 10-12m
- de Broglie wavelength: a
characteristic wavelength for a moving particle; Planck's constant
divided by the particle's momentum
- Uncertainty principle:
there is a limit to how accurately simultaneous measurements of
position and momentum (or time and energy) can be made
- x rays: the region of the
electromagnetic spectrum between ultraviolet and Gamma rays
- Spectroscopy: the study of
optical spectra (wavelengths)
- Balmer series: the
wavelengths of the spectrum of hydrogen gas, where the electrons
final state is the n=2 state
- Rydberg formula: a
relationship between wavelengths of emitted light and the initial
and final energy states of the atom which emitted the light
- Ground state: the lowest
energy of a system
- Energy-level diagram: a
representation of the allowed orbits in terms of their energy